MANAGING MULTI-ETHNIC SOCIETIES:

MANAGING MULTI-ETHNIC SOCIETIES:

STRATEGIES, TACTICS, METHODS AND TECHNICS FOR THE REGULATION AND MANAGEMENT OF ETHNIC DIVERSITY AND FOR THE PREVENTION, MANAGEMENT AND RESOLUTION OF ETHNIC CRISES AND CONFLICTS:

The Case of the Balkans

By Mitja Žagar

INTRODUCTION

Diversity and pluralism as basic characteristics of modern societies; number of diversities of different kind; ethnic, cultural, religious, linguistic diversities are just specific dimensions of pluralism and diversity

Need to regulate and manage diversities: political systems – reflection of the existing power structures in societies and in modern democratic political systems also expression of political pluralism; existence of political parties – democratic processes and institutions in democratic countries as the attempt to regulate and manage political pluralism, thereby ensuring long term stability

NATION-STATES AND THEIR HISTORIC EVOLUTION: states as states of individual titular nations; states acquire their ethnic dimension (official language, history, culture, in some cases religion (if not explicitly at least implicitly), symbols and emblems); SYMMETRICAL POLITICAL SYSTEMS unable to reflect all existing asymmetries and diversities; the role of historic and constituent myths; ethnic diversity and pluralism as a problem

Conflicts (as a consequence of diverse interests) as normal phenomena and state of affairs in every plural society; constructive and destructive (social) potentials of conflicts – conflicts as stimuli for progress and development;

Fear of crises and conflicts, which are perceived as threats to peace and stability; inability to deal with crises and conflicts in a rational way;

Traditional approaches to crises and conflicts: management vs. resolution;

New approaches to crises and conflicts: prevention & management & resolution; attempts to make use of all available methods and techniques. However, most approaches focus just on the application of specific methods and techniques in a specific crisis/conflict situation. They fail to address a broader social context that might provoke new crises and conflicts in the future; they do not determine long-term strategies and framework for the prevention, management and resolution of possible future crises and conflicts.

Every conflict is a case sui generis, but there are some similarities and common characteristics that enable an adequate and accommodated use of experiences and approaches from other environments. Successful and effective dealing with crises and conflicts in a long-term demands also adequate strategies that need to adjust constantly to changing circumstances and situations. The most effective and preferred within such strategies are measures that can prevent the escalation of possible crises and conflicts.

A basic need in all plural societies to establish the adequate (democratic) system, institutions, mechanisms and procedures for the prevention, management and resolution of crises and conflicts.

"ETHNIC" CRISES AND CONFLICTS

Is there an "ethnic crisis/conflict? The answer depends on the perspective from which the question is being answered. Primordialists would immediately agree that there are ethnic conflicts per se. Instrumentalists and functionalists would usually claim that there are no ethnic conflicts per se, but their answers might differ substantially. My perspective: Ethnic crises and conflicts are all those that are determined by such by actors involved and/or by observers. Every social crisis and/or conflict that has its ethnic dimensions and implications can be considered an ethnic crisis/conflict. Ethnic dimensions can create a specific emotional charge and mythological frameworks to such a crisis/conflict.

A permanent process of the prevention, management and resolution of conflicts and crises requires that the sensitivity of people to all factors that might signal escalation of crises or conflicts and their capability to apply adequate activities and measures (which would prevent such an escalation) should be developed. The early detection and warning systems often prove crucial for the success of the prevention, management and resolution of crises/conflicts. The introduction of adequate activities and measures usually requires a global strategy that can provide for their synergetic effect.

Often the successful prevention, management and/or resolution of ethnic crises and/or conflicts require an intervention by a third party (often the International Community and International Organization).

NATIONAL, REGIONAL AND GLOBAL INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES: The Case of the Balkans

Wars in the former Yugoslavia brought the Balkan region to the center of attention of the international public and community: To a large extent a traditional (mis)perception of the region as a backward region and trouble-spot of Europe, often based on stereotypes and prejudices, was reproduced and "new tragic images" were used to confirm it.

Sources and reasons for the escalation of the "Yugoslav" crisis and conflicts: many different perceptions and interpretations. Internal and external actors.

Chronology of the Yugoslav crisis and the role of the international community: confusing messages and their interpretations that contributed to the escalation of the crisis in 1990-1991; the impact of the changing global situation and the dismantling of the Soviet Union shifted the attention of the main actors within the international community and decreased the importance/relevance of Yugoslavia; diverse internal developments and dismantling of the Yugoslav state; escalation of crisis and conflicts – wars; intervention(s) of the international community (often too little, to late and in an inadequate way); the role of the international community in the post-war situation.

The Stability Pact for SE Europe and other "international" activities: an important development, although mostly at the formal level in texts of international documents and much less in practical action, was the recognition that in order to ensure peace, stability and democracy in the region one needs to address all relevant issues and fields, which is reflected in the structure of the Stability Pact and its three working tables:

Human rights and democratization,

Economy – rebuilding and development,

Peace and security, including disarmament and de-mining.

The international community, however, often failed to realize that a situation is rather different in every country of the region, which requires a diversified approach and does not always allow for common regional solutions.

An important problem that often puts brakes on a successful post-war management and development is the lack of the adequate global international strategy for the prevention, management and resolution of crises and conflicts, which would serve as the framework for all activities and programs, take care for a concerted action and coordination of all activities in a way that would provide for a maximum synergy.

A brief presentation (See: Table 1) of:

key elements of such strategy, which should be viewed as a process that requires constant updating, accommodation, evolution and development; and

approaches that can be used in this context.

Need to develop strategies at different levels: international – global strategies; regional (sub-continental), national, regions and provinces within states and local communities (decentralization, devolution); in order for strategies to function they need to have their micro and macro dimensions that take into account specific circumstances, needs and interests of every specific environment; YOU CANNOT COPY SOLUTIONS FROM ONE ENVIRONMENT AND TRANSFER THEM TO OTHER ONES; THERE IS A NEED TO ADJUST STRATEGIES AND ACTIVITIES TO EVERY SPECIFIC ENVIRONMENT.

Recommended literature: M. Klemencic, M. Zagar

The former yugoslavia's divers peoples: a reference book (series Ethnic Diversity within nations)

Santa Barbara, CA ABC-CLIO, 2004

CASES FOR SIMULATION – 2^ND PART OF THE WORKSHOP:

Diverse approaches and techniques that can be used for the prevention, management and/or resolution of crises and conflicts; sometimes, at a certain stage of a crisis or conflict, one should focus predominantly on a specific type of activities – i.e., prevention, management or resolution. However, the best results are usually achieved when the prevention, management and resolution are carried out as the process within which all phases run simultaneously and manage to address specific issues and conflicts (which might be at different stages of their cycles).

Adjusted and expanded "Transcend Method" (developed by J. Galtung and his team) can serve as a useful tool.

4.1. APPROACHES:

Conflict triangle: Attitude-Behaviour-Contradiction

Contradiction: conflict of interests (an object of mutual desire, frustration)

Attitude: cooperation, acceptance, hatred

Behaviour: non-violent, violent

Basic needs, basic rights, principles, and interests – if adequate solutions and/or processes are not established, a conflict can transform into a meta-conflict, going beyond the goals of preserving and/or destroying.

A life cycle of a conflict: possible sources of a conflict, emergence, formulation, escalation, and resolution of a conflict. Violent and non-violent stages of conflicts.

Different ways of managing and resolving a conflict:

One side prevails – violent or non-violent:

withdrawal of one side

elimination of the other side

sub-doing of the other side by force

formal hegemony, sub-doing of the other side by formal/legal arrangements

Compromise – an agreement (by chance, the rule of law, deal, sharing) is found that accommodates, at least, some needs of all involved

Common interests and cooperation:

Transformation (transcendence) of a conflict

Framework for a future cooperation

A process of the prevention, management and resolution of conflicts:

Analysis of the crisis/conflict; duration and intensity of the conflict; nature and focus of the conflict; violent and non-violent conflicts; micro or macro level conflicts; internal and external (international) conflicts;

Environment and framework of the conflict – analysis and strategic goals;

Phases of the process: simultaneous activities in more or all phases; creation of diverse options that can reduce the likelihood of violence;

Actors in the process and their role:

Sides in conflict (those actively involved in the conflict)

A third side:

Observers

Communication channels

Consultants and facilitators of negotiations

Mediators

Arbiters and arbitration

Conflict management and resolution and the realization of the strategy by the application of different approaches, methods and techniques.

Different types and scopes of conflicts; the role of the international community in crises/conflicts, especially in international crisis/conflicts (See Tabel 1).

4.2. CASES FOR SIMULATION:

A. CONFLICT IN THE FAMILY:

Family XY lived in an ethnically plural (mixed) environment, which recently experienced a war that destroyed its traditional multiethnic makeup and nature that accommodated multiculturalism, cooperation and mixing of all distinct ethnic communities living in it. In this environment mixed marriages (spouses of diverse ethnic background) were frequent and common. The family XY was one of such "mixed" families: the father A, originating from the ethnic community Q, and mother B, originating from the ethnic community W, had two children in their early teenage years, who usually did not identify themselves with any of the two ethnic communities of their parents, but defined themselves regionally. After the war, which completely destroyed traditionally good inter-ethnic relations in the region and for which the ethnic group Q was blamed, almost everybody belonging to the ethnic group Q left. Ethnic group W now almost exclusively dominated the region and the members of this ethnic group became hostile to members of the ethnic group Q. This made life of everybody belonging to the ethnic community Q in the region almost impossible, which was also the experience of the father. Consequently conflicts escalated also in the family XY and, finally, the father decided that he had to leave the region. He wanted to take the family with him, but the mother, his wife did not want to go. So the father filled a divorce and demanded that the children be given to him so that they can leave the region with him. He claimed that the children of mixed origin had no future in the region, which had been ethnically homogenized and in which ethnic hatred became the rule of the day. Additionally, he claimed that he would be able to provide for a better life of his children in a new environment.

ACTORS IN THE CONFLICT: mother, father, teenage children

THIRD SIDE: social worker, judge at the court

B. NATIONAL – INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT:

Countries A and B fought over the region K, which each of the two claimed, but formally belonged to the country B. They were at the edge of a war, but formally did not declare it. However, they were highly involved in the political life in the region K supporting nationalist politicians of their respective kin ethnic communities (A and B) there. Countries A and B contributed to the escalation of the crisis and conflict, which transformed into a violent conflict – a civil war between the two main ethnic communities in the region. Initially, in the first stage of the civil war the community A was more successful and started to push members of the community B from the region in a concerted effort that was by the international public described as "ethnic cleansing" or genocide (ethnocide). Additionally, all ethnic minorities in the region suffered because of the war. The (indirect and informal) involvement of the country A in the region K was by the country B declared a foreign intervention and occupation; the country B, which insisted that the war in the region K was not a civil war but a illegal foreign military intervention (attack without the declaration of war), demanded the intervention of the international community to put an end to the practice of "ethnic cleansing" and illegal occupation of the region K. Atrocities presented by media shocked the international public that started to demand the international intervention as well. The issue was brought before the UN Security Council and an attempt was made to start the negotiations between the countries A and B and ethnic communities A and B from region K – with an immediate goal to stop the war and "ethnic cleansing."

ACTORS IN THE CONFLICT: country A, country B, ethnic group A, ethnic group B

THIRD SIDE: the UN, international observers, independent mediator (agreed by all actors), representatives of the USA and EU

This is a contribution of Mr. Zagar to the EU&Western Balkans conference, which took place in Sarajevo, 9-13 November 2004.
© 2004 AEGEE Sarajevo and the IPWG. www.aegee.org/eue